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343とFermatの「約数の和」問題

2017年12月21日作成/2017年12月25日修正

本ページはインテジャーズ Advent Calendar 2017の21日目の記事です。

Fermatは様々な予想や定理、問題を提起しましたが、その中に次のような問題があります。

  1. 立方数で、その約数の和が平方数になるものを求めよ。たとえば $7^3=343$ の約数の和は $1+7+7^2+7^3=20^2$ など。
  2. 平方数で、その約数の和が立方数になるものを求めよ。

これらの2つの問題を $\sigma$ を使ってあらわすと それぞれ \begin{equation}\label{eq1} \sigma(x^3)=y^2 \end{equation} および \begin{equation}\label{eq2} \sigma(x^2)=y^3 \end{equation} となる整数 $x, y$ を求める問題ということになります。

$x=p$ が素数の場合に限れば、それぞれ \begin{equation}\label{eq3} 1+p+p^2+p^3=y^2 \end{equation} および \begin{equation}\label{eq4} 1+p+p^2=y^3 \end{equation} という不定方程式を解く問題に帰着されます。一般の場合は \[x=\prod_{i=1}^k p_i^{e_i}\] と素因数分解すれば、それぞれ \[\prod_{i=1}^k (1+p_i+p_i^2+\cdots +p_i^{3e_i})=y^2\] および \[\prod_{i=1}^k (1+p_i+\cdots +p_i^{2e_i})=y^3\] を解く問題に帰着されます。

Fermatはこの問題を1657年に提起しましたが、当初は真面目に相手にする人がいなかったようで、 WallisはDigbyに宛てた手紙の中で、この二つの問題の解として $1$ をあげています。また Brounckerは一つ目の問題の解として $\frac{1}{n^6}$ と $\frac{343}{n^6}$ という謎の解をあげています。

Frenicleは1を解として挙げる数学者がいることに呆れていますが、当時、こうした初等整数論の問題が、 というよりはFermatの数論研究自体が真剣に考えられてこなかったことをあらわしてもいると思います。

その後、Wallisは的外れな答えをしていたことに気付いたのか、$n$ が小さな素数や $2, 3, 5$ の累乗で あるときに、 $\sigma(n^3)$ の素因数分解を与え、そこから一つ目の問題の解を見つけています。

素因数分解を使ってどうするのかですが、$\sigma(x^3)$ の素因数分解に現れる各素数の指数は $\prod_{i=1}^k (1+p_i+p_i^2+\cdots +p_i^{3e_i}$ の素因数分解に現れる素数の指数の総和なので、 それらがすべて偶数になるものを探します。たとえば \[ \begin{split} \sigma(2^3) & =2^3+2^2+2+1=15=3\cdot 5,\\ \sigma(3^3) & =3^3+3^2+3+1=40=2^3\cdot 5,\\ \sigma(5^3) & =5^3+5^2+5+1=156=2^2\cdot 3\cdot 13,\\ \sigma(13^3) & =13^3+13^2+13+1=2380=2^2\cdot 5\cdot 7\cdot 17,\\ \sigma(41^3) & =41^3+41^2+41+1=70644=2^2\cdot 3\cdot 7\cdot 29^2,\\ \sigma(47^3) & =47^3+47^2+47+1=106080=2^5\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdot 13\cdot 17 \end{split} \] から \[ \sigma(751530^3)=\sigma((2\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdot 13\cdot 41\cdot 47)^3)=2^{14}\cdot 3^4\cdot 5^4\cdot 7^2 \cdot 13^2 \cdot 17^2 \cdot 29^2=1292054400^2 \] となることがわかります。また \[\sigma(3^9)=2^2\cdot 11^2\cdot 61\] などから \[\sigma(37200735^3)=\sigma((3^3\cdot 5\cdot 11\cdot 13\cdot 41\cdot 47)^3)=346787400960^2\] が得られます。

約数の和が累乗になる数

LucasはFermatの提示した2つの問題には無限個の解があると主張しましたが、証明は示しておらず、 問題は未解決のようです。一方、元の数が平方数や立法数ではなく、平方因子を持たない数とした場合、 約数の和が $k$ 乗数になる数、 つまり \[\sigma(x)=y^k\] となる、平方因子を持たない数 $x$ は無限にあることがわかっています。 基本的な考えは上記のWallisの方法と同様で、 $p+1$ の素因数分解を考えます。 ここで、定数 $c_1, c_2$ (ただし $c_1<1$ )が存在し、 $x$ が十分大きいとき、素数 $p\leq x$ で $p+1$ が $x^{c_1}$ より小さな素因数しか持たないようなものの個数が $x/\log^{c_2} x$ より多いという(かなり高度な)結果が知られています。 それで、$p+1$ の素因数が小さいものを集めて、その素因数分解に現れる各素数の指数の和がすべて $k$ の倍数となるものが存在することを示すことになります。

具体的には \[p_i+1=\prod_{j=1}^M q_j^{e_j} (i=1, 2, \ldots, N)\] に対して \[\mathbb{v}_i=[e_1, e_2, \ldots, e_M]\] というベクトルを対応させると、 $1$ から $N$ までの整数の空でない部分集合 $S$ をうまくとって $\sum_{i\in S}\mathbb{v}_i$ の各成分がすべて $k$ の倍数となるようにできれば $\sigma(\prod_{i\in S} p_i)=\prod_{i\in S} (p_i+1)$ は望んだとおり $k$ 乗数となります。

実は $N$ が $M$ に比べて十分大きければ、そのような部分集合 $S$ が必ず多く存在することが知られています。 ここで $G=(\mathbb{Z}/k\mathbb{Z})^M$ の要素からなる列 $\mathbb{v}_1, \mathbb{v}_2, \ldots, \mathbb{v}_n$ で、

$S$ が $1, 2, \ldots, n$ の空でない部分集合であるときに $\sum_{i\in S}\mathbb{v}_i$ が決して $\mathbb{0}$ に一致しない
という性質を持ったものを考えます。そのような列で最も長いものの個数を $n(G)$ とすると、 次のようなことが知られています(Alford, Granville and Pomerance, Ann. of Math. 139 (1994), 703--722, 著者名で気づいた方もいらっしゃると思いますが、これはCarmichael数が無限に多く存在することを証明するために用いられた結果です)。
  1. $n(G)\lt M(1+\log(k^M/M))$.
  2. $N\gt s\gt n(G)$ であるとき $G$ の $N$ 個の要素 $\mathbb{v}_1, \mathbb{v}_2, \ldots, \mathbb{v}_n$ をとると必ず、 \[\sum_{i\in S}\mathbb{v}_i=\mathbb{0}\] となる集合 $S$ で、 $s-n(G)\leq |S|\leq s$ となるものが少なくとも $\binom{N}{s}/\binom{N}{n(G)}$ 個とれる。

上記の $p_i+1$ の素因数分解に対応するベクトルに対して、これを適用することで、 $\sigma(x)$ が $k$ 乗数となるものが多くとれることがわかります。 ここから $\sigma(x)$ が $k$ 乗数となる平方因子を持たない $x$ が無限に多く存在することが導かれます。

上の結果で $c_1=0.2961$ ととれることが知られています (Baker and Harman, Acta Arith. 83 (1998), 331-361)。これを使うことで

約数の和が $k$ 乗数となるような、 $X$ 以下の、平方因子を持たない整数の個数を $s_k(X)$ とおく。任意の正の数 $\epsilon>0$ に対し、$X$ が十分大きいとき $s_k(X)\geq X^{0.7039-\epsilon}$ が成り立つ。

ということが導かれます (Freiberg, J. Aust. Math. Soc. 92 (2012), 145-154)。

この問題については、 Beukers, Luca and Oort, Amer. Math. Monthly 119 (2012), 373-380 で詳しく取り扱われています。

素数の場合

ところで $x$ が素数 $p$ の場合に限れば、冒頭に掲げた、Fermatの2つの問題の解は有限個しかないこと、 より正確には

$(\ref{eq3})$ の解は $(p, y)=(7, \pm 20)$ のみで、$(\ref{eq4})$ は解を持たない。
ということが比較的簡単に証明できます。


$(p, y)$ が $(\ref{eq3})$ の解ならば $(p, -y)$ も $(\ref{eq3})$ の解なので $y$ が正の場合のみ考えます。 $(\ref{eq3})$ の両辺から $1$ を引いて \[p(1+p+p^2)=p+p^2+p^3=y^2-1=(y-1)(y+1)\] という形にすることで $y\equiv \pm 1\pmod{p}$ つまり $y=ap+1$ または $y=ap-1$ となることがわかります。 もちろん $a$ は正です。

$y=ap+1$ の場合、先程の式の両辺を $p$ で割って \[a(ap+2)=1+p+p^2\] となり、 $2a\equiv 1\pmod{p}$ であることがわかりますから、$2a=bp+1$ とおくと \[4(1+p+p^2)=4a(ap+2)=(2a)^2 p+8a=(bp+1)^2 p+4(bp+1)=b^2 p^3+2bp^2+(4b+1)p+4\] となって、両辺から $4$ を引いて、次いで $p$ で割ると \begin{equation}\label{eq5} 4(1+p)=b^2 p^2+2bp+4b+1 \end{equation} となります。

$bp=2a-1>0$ より $b$ も正ですが、 $b\geq 2$ のときは \[b^2 p^2\geq 4p^2\geq 4(1+p)\] より $(\ref{eq5})$ の右辺は必ず左辺より大きくなるので $(\ref{eq5})$ は成り立ちません。 残った $b=1$ のときは $(\ref{eq5})$ は \[4(1+p)=p^2+2p+5\] つまり \[p^2-2p+1=0\] となり、$p=1$ となりますが、これは素数ではありません。

$y=ap-1$ の場合、同様に \[a(ap-2)=1+p+p^2\] より $2a=bp-1$ とおくと \[4(1+p+p^2)=(bp-1)^2 p-4(bp-1)=b^2 p^3-2bp^2+(1-4b)p+4\] から \begin{equation}\label{eq6} 4(1+p)=b^2 p^2-2bp+(1-4b) \end{equation} がわかります。もちろんここでも $b$ は正です。 そこで $b\geq 2$ のときは \[b^2 p^2\geq 2b^2 p\geq (2b+4) p>(2b+4)p-4b+3\] より、やはり $(\ref{eq6})$ の右辺は必ず左辺より大きくなり $(\ref{eq6})$ は成り立ちません。一方 $b=1$ のとき \[p^2-2p-3=4p+4\] より \[p^2-6p-7=0\] となって $p=7$ が得られます。このとき $y=20$ です。これがただ一つの解です。

これは $y$ が正の場合でしたが、符号を変えることで、 $y$ が負の場合も $p=7, y=-20$ がただ一つの解です。したがって $(\ref{eq3})$ の解は $(p, y)=(7, \pm 20)$ のみとなります。


次に $(\ref{eq4})$ の解が存在しないことを示します。 やはり $(\ref{eq4})$ の両辺から $1$ を引くと \[p(p+1)=p+p^2=y^3-1=(y-1)(y^2+y+1)\] となりますから $p$ は $y-1$ または $y^2+y+1$ を割り切ることになります。 ここで右辺に2次の因数が出ているところが先程の場合と異なります。

$p$ が $y-1$ の約数のとき $y-1=ap$ とおくと $y^2+y+1=(p+1)/a$ となって \[y^2+y+1\leq p+1\leq ap+1\leq y,\] つまり $y^2+1\leq 0$ となってしまうので、 $p$ が $y-1$ を割り切るということは ありえないことがわかります。

$p$ が $y^2+y+1$ の約数のときは、少し慎重な検討が必要となります。 \[p+1=a(y-1), ap=y^2+y+1\] とおくと \[p=ay-a-1\] より \[a(ay-a-1)=y^2+y+1\] となりますが、これを移項すると \[y(a^2-y-1)=a^2+a+1\] となります。 $y\geq 2$ のとき \[a^2+a+1=y(a^2-y-1)\geq 2(a^2-3)=2a^2-6\] つまり \[a^2\leq a+7\] より $a\leq 3$ です。 $a=3$ のとき $y(8-y)=13$ より $y=4\pm \sqrt{3}$ でなければなりませんが、これは整数ではありません。 $a=2$ のとき $y(3-y)=7$, $a=1$ のとき $-y^2=1$ で、いずれの場合も $y$ は実数ではないので $a$ がどんな正の整数でも $y$ が整数になることはない、つまり $y\geq 2$ はありえないことになります。 残ったのは $y=1$ の場合ですが、このとき $p^2+p+1=y^3=1$ より $p=-1, 0$ となってしまうので この場合もありえません。

このことから、 $(\ref{eq4})$ は解を持たないことがわかります。

12/25 追記

その後、次回記事 を書くにあたってTwitterを読み返していましたところ、$(\ref{eq3})$ の解が $(p, y)=(7, \pm 20)$ しかないことについて、 より単純な証明があることを以前にtweetしていたことを思い出しました。

$\gcd(p+1, p^2+1)=1, 2$ ですが $p^2+1$ は平方数にはならないので $p+1=2s^2, p^2+1=2t^2$ です。もちろん $p$ は奇数です。 \[2(t+s)(t-s)=2t^2-2s^2=p^2-p=p(p-1)\] なので $t-s, t+s$ の一方は $p$ の倍数ですから、 $s+t\geq p$ となります。

ところで $2s^2-1=p, 2t^2-1=p^2$ ですから \[s\leq sqrt{(p+1)/2}, t\leq sqrt{(p^2+1)/2}\] が成り立ちます。

$p\geq 3$ ですから $t<(3/4)p, sp/4$ つまり $p<16$ でなければいけません。 $p=3, 5, 7, 11, 13$ を順次確かめていくと $p=2s^2-1$ となるのは $s=2, p=7$ のときのみです。 よって解は $(p, y)=(7, \pm 20)$ のみとなります。

12/25追記

公開後、次回記事 を書くにあたってTwitterを読み返していましたところ、$(\ref{eq3})$ の解が $(p, y)=(7, \pm 20)$ しかないことについて、 より単純な証明があることを以前にtweetしていたことを思い出しました。

$\gcd(p+1, p^2+1)=1, 2$ ですが $p^2+1$ は平方数にはならないので $p+1=2s^2, p^2+1=2t^2$ です。もちろん $p$ は奇数です。 \[2(t+s)(t-s)=2t^2-2s^2=p^2-p=p(p-1)\] なので $t-s, t+s$ の一方は $p$ の倍数ですから、 $s+t\geq p$ となります。

ところで $2s^2-1=p, 2t^2-1=p^2$ ですから \[s\leq \sqrt{(p+1)/2}, t\leq \sqrt{(p^2+1)/2}\] が成り立ちます。

$p\geq 3$ ですから $t<(3/4)p, s<\sqrt{p}$ より $\sqrt{p}>p/4$ つまり $p<16$ でなければいけません。 $p=3, 5, 7, 11, 13$ を順次確かめていくと $p=2s^2-1$ となるのは $s=2, p=7$ のときのみです。 よって解は $(p, y)=(7, \pm 20)$ のみとなります。


Fermatは約数の和を考えたのですが、代数的にあらわされた不定方程式 $(\ref{eq3})$ および $(\ref{eq4})$ のほうに着目して、pが素数という条件を外すとどうなるでしょうか。 つまり純粋な代数的不定方程式 \[1+x+x^2+x^3=y^2\] および \[1+x+x^2=y^3\] で $x$ が素数でなくてもよいとして、整数解を考えるわけです。

実はこの場合にも整数解は有限個しか存在しないことが示せますが、その点については次回の記事で 解説したいと思います。

あとがき

はじめに書いたとおり、本ページはインテジャーズ Advent Calendar 2017の21日目の記事です。 インテジャーズ Advent Calendar 2017 で何か書きたいと思ってエントリしましたが、 初等整数論に関する大抵の話題はすでにインテジャーズの本家ブログで出尽くしているため、 まだ本家ブログで触れられていない話題を考えておりました。

今回のFermatの問題もすでに本家ブログで触れられていると思っていたら意外にも触れられていませんでしたので、 この機会に議論しようと思った次第です。

本ページはインテジャーズ Advent Calendar 2017 の記事ということから、文体なども普段と少し変えてインテジャーズ本家を意識しましたが、いかがでしたか?

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#1114:[ This western Ukrainian citystands inwestern Ukraine,offeringlocal museums,togeth ] Home Mail ElliottSoymn_____Date: 12/26 13:02 GMT
News about Chernivtsi on <a href=https://u-misti.chernivtsi.ua/>https://u-misti.chernivtsi.ua</a> covers the latest events in Chernivtsi and the surrounding region. The site U Misti features local news, transport updates, blogs, and city events.

#1113:[ Poltavahostsits green parksalongsidecurrent city planning,demonstratingthe coexi ] Home Mail Brentbrepe_____Date: 12/26 02:31 GMT
News about Poltava on <a href=https://u-misti.poltava.ua/>https://u-misti.poltava.ua</a> covers the main and interesting events in Poltava and the surrounding region. The site features transport updates, blogs, and local events.

#1112:[ This factual locatormarksa city contextassociated with Dnipro,applied toscope de ] Home Mail Bobbyrot_____Date: 12/25 18:17 GMT
Новости Днепр <a href=https://u-misti.dp.ua/>https://u-misti.dp.ua</a> последние события Днепра и области. Транспорт, обзоры, все о Днепре на одном сайте

#1111:[ This formal reference linenotescity-level informationfor Vinnytsia,applied todef ] Home Mail Robertodoma_____Date: 12/25 12:55 GMT
События и проишествия в Днепре <a href=https://faine-misto.dp.ua/>https://faine-misto.dp.ua</a> на сайте Файне мисто. Оперативные новости, обзоры и много полезного из жизни города.

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管理者 Tomohiro Yamada : JawaNote v1.41 [Shigeto Nakazawa], revised by Tomohiro Yamada