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Fermat数と完全数

2019年6月4日作成

突然の宣伝になりますが、現在、大阪・海老江で毎週水曜日と金曜日に大阪分散技術コミュニティ 主催で、数学について語り合ったり、数学をモチーフとしたテーブルゲームで遊んだりするイベント「数学デーin大阪」 が開催されています。

5/31の数学デーin大阪で、$2^n+1$ の形の数が完全数になることがあるかどうか?という問題について 考えていました($2^n-1$ の形の数が完全数にならないことは後に述べることからすぐにわかります)。 そのような完全数は有限個しかないことは既に知られていますが、存在しないことの 証明が、筆者が探した限り、意外にも文献に見当たらないのです。

Fibonacci数やLucas数が完全数にならないことは既に示されており (Luca, Rend. Circ. Math. Palermo 49 (2000), 313--318)、 より広い範疇の漸化式で定まる数列($2^n+1$ の形の数からなる数列を含む)において、完全数は有限個しかないことが 示されています (Luca, 2001)。その後も、漸化式で定まる数列に関しては様々な研究成果があり、 その一つとして $2^n+1$ の形の完全数が存在しないことも知られていそうですが、 筆者が探した限り、意外にも文献に見当たらないのです。

一方で、$2^n+1$ の形の数の中でも特殊な形の数が完全数にならないことは既に知られています。ここではそれについて説明したいと思います。


\[2^{2^n}+1 (n=0, 1, 2, \ldots)\] の形の数をFermat数といいます。 Fermatの最終定理に続いて、再びFermatの名前が現れますが、 Fermatはこの形の数のうち最初の5つ \[2^1+1=3, 2^2+1=5, 2^4+1=17, 2^8+1=257, 2^{16}+1=65537\] がいずれも素数であることに気づき、そこから、この形の数はすべて素数であると予想しました。 ところがEulerは \[2^{32}+1=4294967297=641\times 6700417\] であることを発見し、Fermatの予想が誤りであることを示しました。その後、他の多くのFermat数が 合成数であることが発見される一方、素数のFermat数は最初の5つのもの以外1つも見つかっておらず、 最初の5つのもの以外のFermat数はすべて合成数であると予想されています。しかし、実際には 合成数のFermat数が無限に多く存在することすら証明されていません。


ところでもう一つ、有名な未解決問題として、奇数の完全数、すなわち自分自身を除いた約数の和が その数自身に等しくなる数が存在するかという問題があります。 $\sigma(n)$ を $n$ の($n$ 自身も含めた)約数の和とすると、 \[\sigma(n)=2n\] となる奇数 $n$ が存在するかという問題となります。

偶数の完全数は $2^{p-1}(2^p-1)$ (ただし $2^p-1$ は素数)の形のものに限ることが Eulerによって示されています。一方、奇数の完全数は$10^{1500}$ より大きく (Ochem and Rao, 2012)、 $10$ 個の相異なる素因数を持たなければならず (Nielsen, 2015)、 さらに $p^e q_1^{2e_1} q_2^{2e_2} \cdots q_r^{2e_r}$, $p\equiv e\equiv 1\pmod{4}$ の形でなければならない、などの結果が示されていますが 実際に奇数の完全数が存在するかどうかは未だに解決されていません。


さて、奇数の完全数について知られている1つの結果としてFermat数は完全数にならないことが知られています (Luca, 2000)。 このことの証明は初等的で、Krizek, Florian Luca and Lawrence Somer の著書にも紹介されています。 そこで、この記事ではこのことの証明をすることにします。

$p$ を $F_n=2^{2^n}+1$ の素因数とします。このとき Fermatの小定理で触れた事実から $2\pmod{p}$ の位数は $p-1$ の約数です。一方、 が成り立ちます。一方 $2^{2^n}\equiv -1\pmod{p}, 2^{2^{n+1}}\equiv 1\pmod{p}$ から $2\pmod{p}$ の位数は $2^{n+1}$ と一致することがわかります。よって $p-1$ は $2^{n+1}$ の倍数でないといけません。ここから

$F_n$ の素因数は $k\times 2^{n+1}+1$ の形をしている。

ことがわかります。実際はもう少し強く $k\times 2^{n+2}+1$ の形をしていることがわかりますが (たとえば $F_5$ の素因数 $641$ は $5\times 2^7+1$ とあらわされます)、 その事実を使わなくても議論できます。

\[F_n=p_1^{e_1} p_2^{e_2} \cdots p_r^{e_r}, p_1\lt p_2\lt\cdots\lt p_r\]

と素因数分解します。このとき各 $p_i$ は $k\times 2^{n+1}+1$ の形であることから \begin{equation}\label{eq1} p_i\geq i\times 2^{n+1}+1 \end{equation} であることがわかります。また $F_n\geq p_1^r$ より $F_n$ の素因数の個数 $r$ について \begin{equation}\label{eq2} r\leq \frac{\log F_n}{\log p_1}\leq \frac{\log(2^{2^n}+1)}{\log(2^{n+1})+1}<\frac{\log 2^{2^n}}{\log 2^{n+1}}=\frac{2^n}{n+1} \end{equation} がわかります。 以前、約数について書いたように、 \[\sigma(F_n)=\prod_{i=1}^r (p_i^{e_i}+p_i^{e_i-1}+\cdots +1)=\prod_{i=1}^r \frac{p_i^{e_i+1}-1}{p_i-1}\] より \[\frac{\sigma(F_n)}{F_n}=\prod_{i=1}^r \frac{p_i^{e_i+1}-1}{p_i^{e_i}(p_i-1)}<\prod_{i=1}^r \frac{p_i}{p_i-1}\] となります。そして \[\frac{x}{x-1}=1+\frac{1}{x-1}<\exp \frac{1}{x-1}\] から \[\frac{\sigma(F_n)}{F_n}<\exp \sum_{i=1}^r \frac{1}{p_i-1}\] となることがわかります。ここで $(\ref{eq1})$ から \[\frac{\sigma(F_n)}{F_n}<\exp \sum_{i=1}^r \frac{1}{i\times 2^{n+1}}=\exp \frac{1}{2^{n+1}}\sum_{i=1}^r \frac{1}{i}<\exp \frac{1+\log r}{2^{n+1}},\] さらに $(\ref{eq2})$ から \[\frac{\sigma(F_n)}{F_n}<\exp \frac{1+\log r}{2^{n+1}}<\exp \frac{n\log 2+1-\log(n+1)}{2^{n+1}}\] がわかります。$n\geq 3$ のとき右辺の指数部分は \[\frac{n\log 2+1-\log(n+1)}{2^{n+1}}<\frac{n\log 2}{2^{n+1}}<\log 2\] となることから、 \[\frac{\sigma(F_n)}{F_n}<\exp \log 2<2\] となって $F_n$ は完全数でないことがわかります。 $F_1=3, F_2=5$ はいずれも素数なので完全数ではありません。 よって $F_n$ は完全数ではないことがわかります。

参考文献

  • Florian Luca, The Anti-social Fermat number, Amer. Math. Monthly 107 (2000), 171--173, doi:10.2307/2589441.
  • Michal Krizek, Florian Luca and Lawrence Somer, 17 lectures on Fermat numbers: From number theory to geometry, Springer-Verlag, New York, 2001, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-21850-2.
  • Pascal Ochem and Michael Rao, Odd perfect numbers are greater than $10^{1500}$, Math. Comp. 81 (2012), 1869--1877, doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2012-02563-4.
  • Pace P. Nielsen, Odd perfect numbers, Diophantine equations, and upper bounds, Math. Comp. 84 (2015), 2549--2567, doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2015-02941-X.

あとがき

冒頭にも書きましたように、この記事は5/31の数学デーin大阪で考えた問題から書いたものです。実は先の Fermatの小定理に関する記事も、この記事の準備として書いたものです。

次回の数学デーin大阪は、第34回の数学デーin大阪になり、 $34$が本記事の冒頭でも少し触れたFibonacci数であることから、副題としてFibonacci数に正の平方数が2つしかない (John H. E. Cohn, Square Fibonacci numbers, etc, Fibonacci Quart. 2 (1964), 109--113) ことをあげました(原論文はSquare Fibonacci numbersにhtmlで転載されています。 またインテジャーズに解説がありましたが現在非公開となっています)。というわけで 次回の数学デーin大阪では$2^n+1$の完全数の問題についてひきつづき考えると共にFibonacci数についてお話できればと思います。

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aesthetic appeal. Whether you are looking to diversify your investment portfolio or enhance
your collection, the reputation and reliability of Argor Heraeus make their gold bars a compelling choice.
With a legacy of quality spanning decades, investing in Argor Heraeus gold
bars could prove to be a wise and rewarding decision for the
future.

FAQs about Argor Heraeus Gold Bars

1. What makes Argor Heraeus gold bars unique compared to other brands?



2. Are Argor Heraeus gold bars a good investment option for beginners?


3. How can I verify the authenticity of an Argor Heraeus gold bar?


4. Are there any special considerations when storing Argor Heraeus gold bars long-term?

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