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約数について

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 二つの整数 $N, M$ について、$N=aM$ となる整数 $a$ が存在するとき、$N$ を $M$ の倍数 (multiple) であるといい、$M$ を $N$ の約数 (divisor) であるという。
 $N$ の約数の個数を $d(N)$ とかき、$N$ の約数の和を $\sigma(N)$ とかく。なお、いずれの場合も、約数の中には $1$ や $N$ 自身を含む。

 たとえば、$\sigma(6)=6+3+2+1=12, \sigma(12)=12+6+4+3+2+1=28$ など。また、 $p$ が素数ならば、 $p$ の約数は $1$ と $p$ の2つしかない。よって、$d(p)=2, \sigma(p)=p+1$ である。

 素因数分解の一意性から、$M, N$ が $1$ より大きな整数ならば、 $M=p_1^{f_1} p_2^{f_2} \cdots p_k^{f_k}, N=p_1^{e_1} p_2^{e_2} \cdots p_k^{e_k}, p_1, p_2, \ldots, p_k$ は相異なる素数で $e_1, e_2, \ldots, e_k, f_1, \ldots, f_k$ は負ではない整数、と一意に表せる(指数が $0$ になるものは無視する)。 よって、 $N$ が $M$ の倍数ならば、 $N=aM$ とかけ、 $a, M$ はそれぞれ正の整数であるから、それぞれ素因数分解でき、 $N$ の素因数分解はそれによって定まる。 したがって、 $N$ の素因数分解には 各 $p_i$ が $f_i$ 回以上現れることになる。すなわち、 $f_i\leq e_i$ となる。
 逆に、 $M=p_1^{f_1} p_2^{f_2}\cdots p_k^{f_k}, N=p_1^{e_1} p_2^{e_2} \cdots p_k^{f_k}$, $p_1, p_2, \ldots, p_k$ は相異なる素数で $f_i\leq e_i$ ならば、 $M$ は $N$ の約数であることはすぐに分かる (ここで、素因数分解の一意性は重要である。もし素因数分解の一意性がなければ、 $N$ の素因数分解が、上で言うところの $N=aM$ から従うもののほかにもあるかも知れず、そのような $N$ の素因数分解は $M$ の素因数分解とは関係付けられなくなってしまうからである)。

 したがって、 $N=p_1^{e_1} p_2^{e_2} \cdots p_k^{e_k}, p_1, \ldots, p_k$ は相異なる素数で $e_1, e_2, \ldots, e_k$ は負ではない整数のとき、 $N$ の約数はちょうど上記の形をしたものすべてとなることがわかる。

 よって、$d(N)$ および $\sigma(N)$ について次のことが分かる。 \[d(N)=(e_1+1)(e_2+1)\cdots (e_k+1), \sigma8N)=(p_1^{e_1}+p_1^{e_1- 1}+\cdots +1)(p_2^{e_2}+p_2^{e_2- 1}+\cdots +1)\cdots (p_k^{e_k}+p_k^{e_k- 1}+\cdots +1)\]


 自分自身を除く約数の和が自分自身に等しくなる数は完全数 (perfect number) と呼ばれる。すなわち、$\sigma(N)=2N$ となるとき、 $N$ を完全数という。たとえば、 $6=3+2+1, 28=14+7+4+2+1$ などである。完全数の概念は古代ギリシアのピタゴラスにまで遡るといわれる。
 また、旧約聖書の「創世記」には「神は6日で世界を創造した」という記述があるが、これは $6$ が完全数であることと結びついているとされる(その後、「$7$日目に休息した」という記述から、西洋では $7$ こそが完全な数であり $6$ は悪魔の数字とされるようになったとも言われるが、良く分からない)。

 紀元前には既にユークリッドによって $6, 28, 496, 8128$ が完全数であることは知られていた。ユークリッドはまた、 $2^N-1$ が素数(今日で言う、メルセンヌ素数である)ならば、 $2^{N-1}(2^N-1)$ は完全数であることを示した。
 18世紀に入って、オイラーは偶数の完全数はユークリッドが示した形のものしかないことを証明した。したがって、偶数の完全数はメルセンヌ素数と一対一に対応する。
 メルセンヌ素数は無限に存在する(つまり、偶数の完全数は無限に存在する)と予想されているが、未だに解決されていない。

 奇数の完全数は存在するのだろうか。これはピタゴラスの時代には問題にされていたもので、数論における最古の未解決問題と言われている。

 ピタゴラスはまた、完全数と良く似た概念である友愛数という数を考えた。二つの数の組で、一方の約数の和(自分自身を除く)が、もう片方の約数の和(自分自身を除く)に等しいものである。ある人から「友人とは何ですか?」と開かれた時、「それはもうひとつの私です。たとえば $220$ と $284$ のようなものです」と答えたという。
 実際、$220=2^2\times 5\times 11, 284=2^2\times 71$ だから、 $\sigma(220)=7\times 6\times 12=504, \sigma(284)=7\times 72=504$ となり、$\sigma(220)-220=284, \sigma(284)-284=220$ となる。 

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